Spectrum of Emerging
Sciences, 1 (1) 2021 56-60
Ramifications of
Nanotechnology on Common Human Disorders
Vania
Munjara*
a*South Forsyth High School, Cumming,
GA, 30041.
*Corresponding
Author:
E-mail Address: vaniamunjar@gmail.com
Article available online
at: https://esciencesspectrum.com/AbstractView.aspx?PID=2021-1-1-12
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ARTICLE INFO
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ABSTRACT
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Original
Research Article
Received: 7 November 2021
Accepted:
22 November 2021
DOI
10.55878/SES2021-1-1-12
KEYWORDS
Toxicity,
Ultrafine
Particles,
Autophagy,
Hydrophilic,
Hydrophobic
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This
review article will go over the ramification of nanotechnology or more
specifically nanomedicine and nanoparticles on human disorders. Nanotechnology
is a broad field and can cover many aspects but this article’s capability is
limited and will mainly go over the potential advantages and disadvantages of
this upcoming piece of technology. The article attempts to put nanoparticles
into perspective by offering simple ratios. It then goes on to talk about the
varied types of applications of nanotechnology in fields in and outside of
medicine. The article explains the two main types of targeted drug delivery
systems: systemic system and pulmonary delivery and then dives deep into the
specific effects of nanotechnology on a few particular human disorders like
tuberculosis and more. The effects range from reduction of toxicity and
minimal side effects to negative impacts on the environment and DNA exposure.
We then wrap up this study by looking at prospective gaps in the field like
unknown surface properties and social, economic, and legal concerns. This
study is designed to give one a deeper overview of the varied range of
effects that nanotechnology not only has on the human body but also on areas
outside the human body. Furthermore, this study is in no way meant to
impersonate someone else’s work nor convince a person to act in a certain
way.
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Introduction
The
Nanotechnology is the term used to describe materials and/or processes that
operate at a very minute scale. To put this kind of technology into perspective
we can see the sizes of DNA, red blood cells, and the width of a human hair(1)(2). DNA is 2.5 nanometers, a red blood
cell is 7000 nanometers and human hair is 80,000 nanometers wide. Nanoparticles
are the kind of particles from the technology known as nanotechnology and are
used for their chemical properties. These kinds of particles are already used
in our day-to-day life products like sunscreen, foods, and clothing(3).
Nanotechnology
is a ground-breaking path in technological development that deals with material
management at the nanometer scale. Nanotechnology is a broad term that refers
to any nanoscale technology with a wide range of real-world applications.
Nanotechnology application of chemical, physical, and biological systems at
scales ranging from individual molecules or atoms to submicron particles(4). Carbon nanomaterials' use has paved
the way for a slew of new technologies in nanomedicine and bioelectronics.
Nanotechnology
has become a multidisciplinary field in recent years, with a fundamental understanding
of the electrical, optical, magnetic, and mechanical properties of
nanostructures promising to deliver the next generation of functional materials
with a wide range of applications(5).
Nanostructures
have helped solve technological and environmental problems(6). As seen, nanotechnology has the
potential to alter our perceptions of humans and give us the ability to solve
global problems.
Nanotechnology
has been widely used for diagnosing and treating human diseases such as
tuberculosis, human immunodeficiency diseases, and malaria(7). The creation of neuro-sized
carriers and targeted drug delivery systems are the root cures for previously
mentioned human diseases(8). Previous studies have shown that
nanotechnology can potentially suppress immune responses. However, its effects
are very undermined in the field of human diseases like neurological disorders(9). This study will aim to describe the
applications of nanotechnology, and more precisely the potential ramifications
of nanomedicine and as a result the potential gaps in the effects of this
upcoming piece of technology(10).
II. How Nanomedicine
works:
A.
Sustained systemic delivery:
Systems
are being delivered that not only reduce the dose frequency of drugs but also
ease the rate of frequency. As seen by tuberculosis, the current treatment
plans include frequent high dosing of medication. Such a plan leads to failure
of treatment. 2 main systems of local delivery are pulmonary delivery and
systemic delivery(11). In the case of sustained release,
the serum concentration gradually decreases over time whereas in an immediate
release the serum concentration immediately decreases after ‘x’ amount of time
after treatment.
B.
Pulmonary Delivery:
Mainly
used for respiratory diseases as it allows for greater exposure to the drug and
works by deactivating enzymes at a rapid pace(12). This leads to the production of
biofilms which are when bacteria accumulate on a surface and produce a matrix
that comprises polysaccharides. (Figure 1)
C.
Targeted drug delivery:
Targeted
delivery of drugs to infected sites can not decrease toxicity but improve
efficiency as well. Serum proteins are absorbed on the surface of nano-carriers
which leads to phagocytosis by the macrophages. Nano-carriers are primarily
used for targeted delivery to the macros themselves. Free drugs can be
delivered both at infected and uninfected sites but nanocarriers are only
permitted to be delivered at infected sites. These cells either take up
intracellular pathogens being delivered as they are targeted toward
pathogen-specific nanobodies(13).
III. Application of Nanotechnology to
human disorders :
Nanomedicine
usually deals with advancing theories and specific apparatuses to prevent and
diagnose diseases. At times, the application of nanoparticles to human diseases
has led to direct contact of these particles with the human body(14). Nanomedicine usually works by
detecting and repairing damaged tissues at the molecular level. Despite the
advantages of nanoparticles like their ability to locate diseases, once
nanoparticles finish their job they are recognized by the body as invaders.
This defense system is one of the reasons that keep scientists from further
progression of nanomedicine(15).
A.
Advantages:
Reduction of Toxicity:
Even
though it is not possible to distinguish between drug and nanoparticle
toxicity, the use of nanoparticles as drug carriers may reduce the toxicity of
the included medication. Drug delivery systems are either targeted at a
specific location or designed to gradually release therapeutic agents in the
desired location. It is furthermore seen that gold nanoparticles' structure and
features make them viable for a wide range of biological applications.
Toxicity, on the other hand, has been seen consuming these systems. Cationic
particles were significantly harmful to 2 nm gold particles, according to (16), but anionic particles on the other
hand were non-toxic. When delivered to mice for tumor treatment, such minuscule
gold nanoparticles were proven to be non-toxic(17)(18). On a similar scale, on the cellular
levels epithelial and dendritic cells and macrophages are used to test the
toxicity of specific kinds of nanotechnology. For example in human epithelial
cells, A549 ( an epithelial cell line) is used to figure out the immune cells’
response to artificially engineered nanomaterials(7).
Minimal side effects:
Nanoparticles
are used in multiple fields, and one of those fields is molecular imaging where
nanoparticles detect and quantify molecular changes. Some properties of
nanoparticles that make this possible are high photostability and tolerance to
high brightness levels. This kind of site-specific drug delivery system has
minimal side effects which include improved bioavailability and biocompatible(19)(20). As discussed previously, silver and
gold nanoparticles have strong anti-fungal properties and as a result, are
inert or highly stable. This causes minimal to no side effects on the human
body when used under certain precautions(21).
Figure 1: A simplified process of how
sustained pulmonary delivery works.
Ultrafine particles and Nanoparticles
(UFPs and NPs)
Two
main types of particles used in nanomedicine are UFPS and NPS. These two
particles are similar in size with regard to diameters. UFP stands for
‘ultrafine particles’ and they usually have a diameter of fewer than 100
nanometers. Moreover, UFPs have been found to have longer lifespans in the
atmosphere and as a result, can be transported a bit over a few thousand
kilometers. They are transported from different geographical locations and
contain different concentrations of metal compounds that are bound to the
surface of these ultrafine particles. Since they can be transported to such
large ranges they can also remain suspended in the air for prolonged periods.
The different primary particles emitted through chemical reactions are SO2,
O2, and NO2. Their high surface area ratio allows them to
carry large amounts of pollutants and glasses. As seen, UFPs have a wide range
of chemical, physical and thermodynamic properties. NPs unlike UFPs are
engineering particles with diameter sizes less than 100 nanometers. These have
certain physical and chemical properties that are not visible by the naked eye
through a microscope. Some processes through which NPs can be produced are
grinding and milling. This term through this study is used to differentiate
between UFPs.
B.
Disadvantages
DNA Damage:
In
a study, scientists grew BeWo cells (commonly used to model the placental
barrier) in a laboratory. These cells were then exposed to cobalt chromium
nanoparticles and transferred onto cultures of human brain cells that had DNA
damage. Exposures to mice discovered that the exposures caused DNA damage in
the newborn’s hippocampus (a part of the brain involved in memory). The
researchers demonstrated that cells processed the nanoparticles through a
natural cellular pathway known as autophagy. This resulted in those cells
producing signaling molecules which caused DNA damage to brain cells and
neurons. This finding was confirmed because the amount of DNA damage was
reduced when autophagy was blocked. Astrocytes are the most common cell type in
the brain and their presence of astrocytes was required for DNA damage to
neurons. When astrocytes are used as the independent variable they cause damage
to neighboring neurons(22). This could have effects on further understanding
of how astrocyte behavior affects neuronal health in a variety of
neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, and
as a result, justify their continued development as potential drug targets.
Negative impacts on the environment:
Nanoscale
materials are becoming smaller and it has become more difficult to detect toxic
nanoparticles in waste that may pollute the environment. Nanoparticles can
interact with their surroundings in multiple ways including attachment to a
carrier and transportation through underground water via bio-uptake,
contaminants, or organic compounds(23). Conventional transport to sensitive
environments may be viable where the nanoparticles can break up into colloidal
nanoparticles. Nanoparticles interact with and as a result healthier
environment in 4 primary ways:
Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic
nanoparticle:
Nanoparticles have larger surface areas than bulk materials and as a result,
can cause more harm to the human body and environment than other particles. For
example in regards to hydrophobic and hydrophilic nanoparticles, researchers
are currently developing Titanium Oxide (TiO2) powder as a coating inclusion to
reduce the effects of weathering(24).
Contaminants: There are mainly two methods for
releasing nanoparticles into the atmosphere. Nanoparticles are emitted directly
into the atmosphere from the source known as primary emission. However, the particles
may also be emitted naturally. As seen these nanoparticles attach to
contaminants and travel which could have negative repercussions because they
could be transported to unhealthy waste sites like nuclear power plant sites.
Solubility:
Scientists are inventing nanoparticles for toxicological testing since many of
the nanoparticles are soluble in water and can be difficult to separate from
waste if handled incorrectly.
Disposal: If waste products like the remains
of nanomaterials are disposed of improperly it can cause environmental
problems. Toxic waste could spill into nearby water bodies which could lead to
depletion of oxygen levels, decreasing biodiversity as well as noise and air
pollution.
Potential Gaps/Concerns:
Even
though we get to experience this kind of technology in our daily lives, there
are many implications to it. The toxic nature of these particles is known to be
affected due to the particle’s shape, size, and chemical composition along with
a few surface properties. Toxicity is present to such an extent that particles
of different forms but the same chemical composition can have varying toxic
properties. The uncertainty is heightened by the company's carelessness to
legally label and register these products in the system. One main effect of
this action is that usually no one, not even the government, gets to know that
a certain product contains nanoparticles. Other issues include social, legal,
and economic ones(25)
Property Issues:
A
patent attorney should fulfill the process of a nanotechnology patent
application. An examiner may further claim that a product lacks uniqueness
because the nanostructure material was previously present in a product. Due to
this reason, legal officers have warned that a patent creates a negative impact
on progress in nanotechnology. Many patents have the potential to have an
impact on the future progression of nanotechnology(26). Patents have the potential to
replace raw materials but ever since their application has increased, it has
led to buying a license from the company of IBM
Impact on Employment:
The
use of specific production factors by nanotechnology has an immense impact on
labor. Some businesses are more likely to incur a high demand for the scientists
or technicians needed to develop new ideas into processes as this field
advances. Multiple labor services are also required, which leads to higher
employment rates. This is because if one is knowledgeable in computer science
fields then one does not need to be knowledgeable in nanotechnologies.
Legal concerns:
National
differences within regulatory authorities will be a challenge during the
clinical trial stage, especially when conducting international trials. The
acceptability of these nanosystems by patients must be considered. The
International Center for Technology Assessment and other consumer groups filed
a lawsuit against the FDA in 2006, accusing the agency lacked initiative in
regulating nanomaterial-containing(27) products under its jurisdiction. In
response, the FDA established a Nano Task Force. As seen, a network of
stakeholders will need to merge for nanomedicines to be successfully translated
which can include academics, industry and government investors, and contracted
research organizations. Thus as seen, nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary
field that necessitates intellectual property and commercialization strategies
to succeed.
Economic concerns:
Lowering
the cost of new drugs and nanotechnology-based systems will be a major
challenge. New drug development is costly in terms of global health solutions.
Existing drugs could be reformulated in nanocarriers to achieve similar
efficiency and safety goals at a much lower cost. However, in developing
countries one currently approved nano-system (an amphotericin B liposomal
formulation) is not cost-effective(27).
IV. Conclusion:
Nanotechnology
is an upcoming field of technology with many effects, both positive and
negative, on common human disorders like tuberculosis. Nanotechnology as a
general overview that refers to any technology on a nanoscale has varied
implications. For many years nanomedicine has been used to find cures for
multiple human deficiency disorders. Nanomedicine is delivered to the specified
areas in the human body through sustained systemic delivery which focuses on
the specific frequency of drugs being delivered. Pulmonary delivery allows for
greater exposure to the drug and deactivating enzymes. The third form of
delivery known as targeted delivery works by delivering drugs in specifically
targeted areas. Some advantages of nanomedicine include reduction of toxicity,
minimal side effects, and the use of ultrafine particles and nanoparticles.
While toxicity is seen in consuming systems, anionic particles are non-toxic
and are under study with gold. Such gold nanoparticles have strong anti-fungal
properties which lead to their stable state. Likewise, due to the size and
chemical properties of ultrafine particles, nanoparticles lead these to be
studied in varied fields. However, the disadvantages mainly include DNA damage
and negative impacts on the environment of nanoparticles. DNA damage was
confirmed by the study which used astrocytes as the independent variable.
Negative effects on the environment are due to hydrophilic and hydrophobic
interactions, contaminants, solubility properties, and incorrect forms of disposal.
Despite all of these implications though some issues regarding this field have
still been left incomplete like social, legal, and economic issues. Over time
though as concerns are addressed with the International Center for Technology
and The U. S Food and Drug Administration, not only will patients be easier to
obtain in this field, a healthy consumer and environment relationship with
nanoparticles will be maintained.